{"id":7389,"date":"2025-01-22T09:34:01","date_gmt":"2025-01-22T09:34:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/?p=7389"},"modified":"2025-01-22T09:34:01","modified_gmt":"2025-01-22T09:34:01","slug":"karbon-erime-noktasi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/","title":{"rendered":"Karbon Neden Y\u00fcksek Erime Noktas\u0131na Sahiptir?"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Kimya ve malzeme bilimi alan\u0131nda karbon, benzersiz \u00f6zellikleri ve yayg\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 nedeniyle \u00e7ok dikkat \u00e7ekmi\u015ftir. Son derece y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131, a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 ortamlarda kararl\u0131l\u0131k sa\u011flar. Ayr\u0131ca pirometalurji, refrakter ve s\u00fcper sert malzeme \u00fcretiminde \u00f6nemli bir rol oynar.<\/p><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_74 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">\u0130\u00e7indekiler<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"\u0130\u00e7erik Tablosunu De\u011fi\u015ftir\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Ge\u00e7i\u015f<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewbox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewbox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseprofile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Structural_of_carbon\" >Karbonun yap\u0131sal \u00f6zelli\u011fi<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Reasons_for_high_melting_point_of_carbon\" >Karbonun y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131n\u0131n nedenleri<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Covalent_bonding\" >Kovalent ba\u011f<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#The_carbon_atoms_are_tightly_packed\" >Karbon atomlar\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ca paketlenmi\u015ftir<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Comparison_melting_point_of_carbon_with_other_elements\" >Karbonun erime noktas\u0131n\u0131n di\u011fer elementlerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Practical_application_of_high_melting_point_of_carbon\" >Y\u00fcksek erime noktal\u0131 karbonun pratik uygulamas\u0131<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/#Conclusion\" >Sonu\u00e7<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<h2 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Structural_of_carbon\"><\/span>Karbonun yap\u0131sal \u00f6zelli\u011fi<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbon, do\u011fada elmas gibi \u00e7e\u015fitli allotroplara sahiptir, <a href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/grafi%cc%87t-nedi%cc%87r-ve-grafi%cc%87t-neyden-yapilir\/\">grafit<\/a> ve fulleren. Atomlar\u0131n farkl\u0131 d\u00fczenlenmesi nedeniyle, fiziksel ve kimyasal \u00f6zellikler b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Elmas atomik bir kristaldir, karbon atomlar\u0131 kovalent ba\u011flarla \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu bir a\u011f yap\u0131s\u0131 olu\u015fturur. Her karbon atomu ve \u00e7evresindeki d\u00f6rt karbon atomu d\u00fczenli bir tetrahedron olu\u015fturacak \u015fekilde ba\u011flan\u0131r, genel yap\u0131 stabildir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Grafit katmanl\u0131d\u0131r, katmandaki karbon atomlar\u0131 kovalent ba\u011flarla alt\u0131gen bir a\u011f olu\u015fturur ve kovalent ba\u011flar g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcd\u00fcr. Tabakaya zay\u0131f bir van der Waals kuvveti etki eder. Bu, grafitin tabakan\u0131n paralel y\u00f6n\u00fcnde iyi iletkenli\u011fe ve kayganl\u0131\u011fa sahip olmas\u0131n\u0131 ve belirli bir kararl\u0131l\u0131\u011fa sahip olmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">C taraf\u0131ndan temsil edilmektedir<strong>60<\/strong>fulleren futbol topu \u015feklindeydi ve top formunda 60 karbon atomundan olu\u015fuyordu. Her karbon atomu, kovalent ba\u011f yoluyla \u00fc\u00e7 kom\u015fu karbon atomuna ba\u011fl\u0131yd\u0131. Kovalent ba\u011fa dayanan fulleren belirli bir kararl\u0131l\u0131\u011fa sahipti.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Reasons_for_high_melting_point_of_carbon\"><\/span>Karbonun y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131n\u0131n nedenleri<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Covalent_bonding\"><\/span>Kovalent ba\u011f<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbonun y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131 esas olarak atomlar aras\u0131ndaki g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc kovalent ba\u011fdan kaynaklanmaktad\u0131r. Elmasta her bir karbon atomu, \u00e7evresindeki d\u00f6rt karbon atomu ile g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir kovalent ba\u011f olu\u015fturur. Kovalent ba\u011flar, atomlar aras\u0131nda elektronlar\u0131n payla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131yla olu\u015fan ba\u011flard\u0131r ve esasen \u00e7ekirde\u011fin payla\u015f\u0131lan elektron \u00e7iftine olan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc \u00e7ekimidir. Elmas\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131nda bu kovalent ba\u011f \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek olabilir. Ve bu kovalent ba\u011flar\u0131 k\u0131rmak ve karbon atomlar\u0131n\u0131 ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in \u00e7ok fazla enerji gerekir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">\u00d6rnek olarak elmas\u0131 ele alal\u0131m, C-C ba\u011f\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k 347 kj\/mol'l\u00fck bir ba\u011fa sahiptir. Is\u0131t\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnya taraf\u0131ndan sa\u011flanan enerji, bu kovalent ba\u011flar\u0131n ba\u011flanmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcstesinden gelmek i\u00e7in yeterli olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Karbon atomunun g\u00f6receli konumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmek ve b\u00f6ylece kat\u0131dan s\u0131v\u0131ya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmek i\u00e7in. Buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, buz gibi baz\u0131 madde molek\u00fclleri van der Waals kuvveti ile daha zay\u0131f hidrojen ba\u011flar\u0131 ve 0 erime noktas\u0131 ile etkile\u015fime girer. Buz eridi\u011finde, sadece molek\u00fcller aras\u0131ndaki bu zay\u0131f kuvvetleri yok etmesi gerekir. Su molek\u00fcllerinin i\u00e7indeki kovalent ba\u011flar\u0131 yok etmeden, bu nedenle daha az enerji gerektirir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Grafitte, katmanlar aras\u0131nda zay\u0131f bir van der Waals kuvveti olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen. Her katmandaki karbon atomlar\u0131 kovalent ba\u011flar arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla kararl\u0131 bir d\u00fczlem a\u011f\u0131 olu\u015fturur. Bu katmandaki kovalent ba\u011f da y\u00fcksek ba\u011f enerjisine sahiptir. B\u00f6ylece grafit \u0131s\u0131t\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, katman\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131 nispeten sabit tutulabilir. Ve t\u00fcm yap\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fmesi i\u00e7in daha y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131k gerekir.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_carbon_atoms_are_tightly_packed\"><\/span>Karbon atomlar\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ca paketlenmi\u015ftir<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Kovalent ba\u011flar\u0131n etkisine ek olarak, karbonun kristal yap\u0131s\u0131ndaki atomlar\u0131n s\u0131k\u0131 birikimi de y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir rol oynar. Elmas\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu a\u011f\u0131nda, karbon atomlar\u0131 son derece d\u00fczenli ve kompakt bir \u015fekilde d\u00fczenlenmi\u015ftir. Bu s\u0131k\u0131 birikim, atomlar aras\u0131ndaki mesafeyi \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck hale getirir ve atomlar aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fim daha da artar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Kristal yap\u0131 teorisine g\u00f6re, atomlar\u0131n yo\u011fun birikimi kristallerin yo\u011funlu\u011funu ve kararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 art\u0131rabilir. Elmaslarda, atomlar\u0131n yo\u011fun birikimi nedeniyle kafes enerjisi daha b\u00fcy\u00fckt\u00fcr. Kafes enerjisi, standart ko\u015fullar alt\u0131nda iyonik kristal taraf\u0131ndan gaz halindeki pozitif iyonlara ve gaz halindeki negatif iyonlara absorbe edilen enerjiyi ifade eder. Atomik kristaller i\u00e7in bunu kristal yap\u0131y\u0131 k\u0131rmak i\u00e7in gereken enerji ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rabilirsiniz. Kafes enerjisi ne kadar b\u00fcy\u00fckse, kristal o kadar kararl\u0131, erime noktas\u0131 o kadar y\u00fcksek olur.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Grafit katmanlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda belirli bir bo\u015fluk olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, her katmandaki karbon atomlar\u0131 da s\u0131k\u0131 bir \u015fekilde d\u00fczenlenmi\u015ftir. Katmandaki bu s\u0131k\u0131 birikim, grafitin kararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve erime noktas\u0131n\u0131 geli\u015ftirmeye de yard\u0131mc\u0131 olur. Grafitin her katman\u0131nda karbon atomlar\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu alt\u0131gen \u00f6rg\u00fc yap\u0131s\u0131, atomlar aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fimin bir denge durumuna ula\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flar. Bu dengeyi bozmak i\u00e7in y\u00fcksek enerji gerekir.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Comparison_melting_point_of_carbon_with_other_elements\"><\/span>Karbonun erime noktas\u0131n\u0131n di\u011fer elementlerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Di\u011fer elementlerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, karbonun erime noktas\u0131 yayg\u0131n elementlere g\u00f6re \u00f6nemli avantajlara sahiptir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">\u00d6rnek olarak demiri ele al\u0131rsak, erime noktas\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k 1538 \u00b0C'dir, metal ba\u011flarla ba\u011fl\u0131 bir metal kristalidir. Eridi\u011finde metal katyonlar\u0131 ve serbest elektronlar aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fimin \u00fcstesinden gelinir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Ve s\u00fclf\u00fcr genellikle S<strong>8<\/strong>\u00a0molek\u00fcller, molek\u00fcler kristaller. Molek\u00fcller aras\u0131ndaki zay\u0131f van der Waals kuvveti sayesinde erime noktas\u0131 sadece 115.21\u00b0C'dir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbon, ister elmas, ister grafit e\u015fde\u011feri allotrop olsun, atomlar aras\u0131 kovalent ba\u011f ve yak\u0131n paketleme yap\u0131s\u0131 nedeniyle, erime noktas\u0131 bir\u00e7ok yayg\u0131n elementten \u00e7ok daha fazlad\u0131r. Karbonun erime noktas\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k 3550 \u00b0C'dir (3824K)\uff0c y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131klarda son derece kararl\u0131d\u0131r, \u00f6zel uygulamalarda \u00f6nemli bir malzeme haline gelir.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Practical_application_of_high_melting_point_of_carbon\"><\/span>Y\u00fcksek erime noktal\u0131 karbonun pratik uygulamas\u0131<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\"><strong>Refrakter malzemeler:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbonu a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dakilerin \u00fcretiminde yayg\u0131n olarak kullanabilirsiniz <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Refractory#:~:text=The%20oxides%20of%20aluminium%20(alumina,in%20the%20manufacture%20of%20refractories.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">refrakter malzemeler<\/a> y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131 nedeniyle. Metal\u00fcrji end\u00fcstrisinde, y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131k f\u0131r\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n astar\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131\u011fa ve erozyona kar\u015f\u0131 dayan\u0131kl\u0131 olmas\u0131 gerekir. Grafit ve karbon i\u00e7eren kompozit malzemeler zorlu ortamlara dayanabilir, f\u0131r\u0131n g\u00f6vdesini koruyabilir ve f\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc uzatabilir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, grafit pota \u00e7elik \u00fcretiminde y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131kta erimi\u015f \u00e7eli\u011fin erimesine dayanabilir.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\"><strong>S\u00fcper sert malzemeler:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbonun bir allotropu olan elmas, y\u00fcksek sertli\u011fi ve y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131 nedeniyle s\u00fcper sert malzemelerin \u00fcretiminde ilk tercih haline gelmi\u015ftir. Elmas aletleri makine, ta\u015f i\u015fleme ve di\u011fer alanlarda kullanabilirsiniz. Y\u00fcksek h\u0131zda kesim yaparken, y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131 onu y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131k ve y\u00fcksek bas\u0131n\u00e7 alt\u0131nda stabil hale getirir. \u0130\u015fleme do\u011frulu\u011funu ve verimlili\u011fini art\u0131r\u0131r. Sentetik elmaslar\u0131 petrol arama ve jeolojik ke\u015fif i\u00e7in sondaj aletleri \u00fcretmek i\u00e7in de kullanabilirsiniz.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\"><strong>Elektronik cihazlar:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Elektronik cihazlar alan\u0131nda, karbonun y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir rol oynamaktad\u0131r. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/science\/semiconductor#:~:text=semiconductor%2C%20any%20of%20a%20class,%2C%20transistors%2C%20and%20integrated%20circuits.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Yar\u0131 \u0130letken<\/a> \u00fcretimi, kristal b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi, doping ve di\u011fer i\u015flemler i\u00e7in y\u00fcksek s\u0131cakl\u0131k ortam\u0131 gerektirir. Y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131, iyi elektrik iletkenli\u011fi ve kimyasal stabilitesi nedeniyle, \u0131s\u0131tma elemanlar\u0131, pota ve di\u011fer bile\u015fenleri \u00fcretmek i\u00e7in kullanabilirsiniz. Yar\u0131 iletken \u00fcretim s\u00fcrecinin hassas kontrol\u00fcn\u00fc ve y\u00fcksek kaliteli \u00fcretimi sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"ql-align-justify\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Sonu\u00e7<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"ql-align-justify\">Karbonun y\u00fcksek erime noktas\u0131, benzersiz yap\u0131s\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r, atomlar aras\u0131ndaki kovalent ba\u011flar g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcd\u00fcr ve s\u0131k\u0131ca paketlenmi\u015ftir ve erime \u00e7ok fazla enerji gerektirir. Di\u011fer elementlerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, bu \u00f6zellik onu bir\u00e7ok alanda avantajl\u0131 k\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca gelecekte daha y\u00fcksek performansl\u0131 karbon bazl\u0131 malzemelerin geli\u015ftirilmesine de yard\u0131mc\u0131 olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In the field of chemistry and materials science, carbon has attracted much attention because of its unique properties and widespread presence. Its extremely high melting point gives it stability in extreme environments. And it plays a key role in pyrometallurgy, refractory and superhard material manufacturing. Structural of carbon Carbon has a variety of allotrope in [&hellip;]<\/p>","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":7402,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-7389","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-carbon-graphite"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v19.2.1 (Yoast SEO v25.3) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Why does Carbon Have a High Melting Point? | Jinsun Carbon<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/jinsuncarbon.com\/tr\/karbon-erime-noktasi\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Why does Carbon Have a High Melting Point?\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"In the field of chemistry and materials science, carbon has attracted much attention because of its unique properties and widespread presence. Its extremely high melting point gives it stability in extreme environments. And it plays a key role in pyrometallurgy, refractory and superhard material manufacturing. 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